E-ISSN: 2814 – 1822; P-ISSN: 2616 – 0668
REVIEW ARTICLE
U. F. Suleiman and S. Ibrahim
Department of Biological Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
Xenobiotics are compounds or chemicals to which an organism is exposed, usually in large concentrations that are inessential to the regular pattern of metabolism of that organism. This review emphasised the categorization and impact of xenobiotics on people, animals, and the environment. It also gave a general overview of the process of discharging and detecting xenobiotics and their potential environmental fates. A chart of xenobiotic categories was also provided, including industrial products, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care items, and radioactive waste. Microplastics and pesticides were discussed as xenobiotic chemicals commonly found in freshwater bodies; similarly, the impact of creating substances such as personal care products, medicinal chemicals, and insecticides through technology was discussed as the source of xenobiotics. Additionally, a thorough description of how pesticide pollution affects common environmental compartments such as soils, streambed sediment, groundwater, and surface water is provided since surface runoff accounts for more than 10% of pesticide residue in surface rivers. Effective techniques, including Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC), Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry GC/MS, and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) along with diverse chromatographic techniques were also discussed as techniques for the analysis of xenobiotics. These techniques are often paired with state-of-the-art detection techniques like high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Highlighted as well were techniques for the removal of xenobiotics using membrane processes, improved oxidation processes, engineered wetlands, photocatalytic degradation, biotransformation, bioremediation, photo-remediation, adsorption, and bioremediation to decrease the side effects.
Keywords: Contamination, Drinking water, Environment, Pollution, Xenobiotics
Water bodies offer vital functions, including agriculture, recreation, aesthetics, and drinking water. Water that is available in adequate amounts and of good quality leads to good health (Bharti & Gajananda, 2013). Meanwhile, contamination from modern activity deteriorates their quality and makes their fundamental use impossible (Chukwu et al., 2008). Humanity's greatest challenge in the twenty-first century involves both water supply and quality issues. The water problem affects industrialized and developing countries; it is not localized to any nation or region (Karthigadevi et al., 2021). Water bodies and aquifers around the world are thought to be seriously threatened by point and non-point sources (Wang et al., 2012). Xenobiotics seep into public drains, enter the food chain, and directly harm humans and the micro-pollutant pollution of aquatic bodies (Roccaro et al., 2013). According to Ebele et al. (2017), new substances are introduced into the environment through technological advancement, greater medication accessibility (for both people and animals), and consistent usage of insecticides and personal hygiene goods. These composites, either separately or in a mixture, can potentially be hazardous, considering the short- and long-term impacts on humans, animals, and the ecosystem (soil, water, and air) (Embrandiri et al., 2016).
The rate of plastic recycling is often low, and some waste plastics end up in landfills or soils. Plastic product output has surged in recent years, reaching 359 million tons in 2018, with China accounting for 30% of the total(Yu et al., 2021). Microplastics have been divulged in air samples, food, and drinking water (Koelmans et al., 2019). The effects of microplastics on human health have been observed recently (Wright & Kelly, 2017). Microplastics may aggregate and produce toxic particles by evoking an immunological reaction if inhaled or swallowed (Koelmans et al., 2019). Microplastics can be categorized into two types: primary and secondary. Primary microplastics are composed of small plastic particles, whereas secondary microplastics are produced when larger plastics break down in the environment (Firdaus et al., 2019). Because of wastewater discharge, these microplastics (MP) are commonly discovered in personal and healthcare commodities and can potentially harm the ecosystem (Duis & Coors, 2016). According to a growing body of research, microplastics are being integrated into frequently consumed food items by animals consuming microplastics in the environment, contamination during manufacture, and/or contamination by plastic packaging (Jambeck et al., 2015).
Unfortunately, due to a variety of human activities over the past few years, the water quality of these significant resources has changed, and the negative effects of water contamination have progressively come to light (Pourkhabbaz et al., 2018). Heavy metal pollution of surface and groundwater is mostly caused by natural processes as well as human activity. Regardless of the source, the increase in heavy metal content in water poses a serious risk to aquatic ecosystems and human health (Banzi et al., 2008). Arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, nickel, and zinc are some of the prevalent heavy metals that pose health risks to people (TBS, 2005; WHO, 2008). When heavy metal concentrations in the water exceed environmental tolerance limits, aquatic ecosystems, and humans through the food chain may be at risk. Consequently, these aspects must be taken into account when creating the baseline data that will be used as a reference for successful verification of compliance with recommended mining methods based on gradually increasing heavy metal concentrations and tolerance thresholds for heavy metal absorption (Pourkhabbaz et al., 2018 & Huang et al., 2020).
In developed as well as developing nations, pesticide use is crucial to modern agricultural practices (Vinas et al., 2022). On this note, over the past few years, legislative, regulatory, and public criticism of the use of pesticides in agriculture to control a variety of pests, including insects, weeds, and plant diseases, has been strong (Syafrudin et al., 2021). The dangers of pesticides include their direct effects on people, food products, the environment, beneficial soil microbes and soil fertility, air pollution, soil, surface water, and non-target vegetation (Beheary et al., 2018). As a result, people are always at risk of losing their lives or paying a high price to protect themselves from the emergence of different water-borne diseases (Elfikrie et al., 2020). In many parts of the world, water pollution brought on by pathogenic organisms, chemicals, heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial and agricultural operations is now a health risk to Humans (Manoj & Avinash, 2012).
Exogenous substances, whether natural or artificial (such as pharmaceutical products and chemicals), that affect animals' cells, tissues, or organs physiologically or biologically are referred to as xenobiotics. Numerous xenobiotics can potentially be dangerous to organisms exposed to them in the environment (de Oliveira et al., 2020). However, the qualities of the organisms, chemicals, and environment all affect how bioavailable these compounds are (Bonjoko, 2014). It’s also conceivable to group xenobiotics as the unusual presence of whatever content in high concentrations, like the presence of antibiotic medications in the human body, something the body does not typically produce or consume, but perhaps a naturally occurring material might be classified as a xenobiotic if it gets into people or other animals (Mathew et al., 2017). Numerous substances (antibiotics, insecticides, colors, personal care products, additives, etc.) that are used to make life better do not inevitably transpire naturally in the environment, or naturally occurring concentrations differ noticeably from those brought about by human action and were created as a result of 20th-century technological advancements (Kumar & Chopra, 2020). The fundamental issue is their physicochemical composition, and this causes them challenging to recognise, quantify, and discard due to factors like diminutive size of molecules, ionizability, Variability, polarity, lipophilicity, and solubility in water (de Oliveira et al., 2020). According to Soucek (2011), in situations where they are excessively prevalent, A few naturally occurring substances, known as endobiotics, can become xenobiotics. According to Kumar and Chopra (2020), Pesticides, pharmaceutical compounds, personal care products, illicit drugs, industrial goods, and radioactive wastes are all considered xenobiotics. As seen in Figure 1, xenobiotics are also found in the air, soil, water, plants, animals, and humans. Among the numerous anthropogenic activities that can release xenobiotics into the environment are human consumption and excretion, wastewater and sewage treatment facilities, livestock treatment and excretion, industries and manufacturing facilities, and agricultural operations. Pesticides are applied directly to the soil, then swept into rivers in the area and groundwater (Pourkhabbaz et al., 2018). Humans consume Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products, which indirectly penetrate the environment through some of their metabolites, some of which are excessively dangerous than the parent molecule cannot be fully digested (Ebele et al., 2017).
Figure 1: Types of Xenobiotic Compounds (Modified from Kumar & Chopra, 2020).
Because pesticides are widely used for agricultural and non-agricultural purposes, there are residues of pesticides in surface and groundwater resources (Székács et al., 2015). As substances for protecting crops from deadly infestations and diseases that impact humans, pesticides are well known, and the good benefits of pesticides make them vital instruments for safeguarding and enhancing the living conditions of the overall world's population (Kumar et al., 2013). Herbicides and insecticides are the most frequently utilized pesticides, making about 47.5% and 29.5% of total pesticide consumption, respectively (Syafrudin et al., 2021).
Water supplies for drinking (both raw and tap) and irrigation for ecological agriculture are both at risk from pesticide contamination, which is present in the water because of runoff from agricultural fields and industrial wastes, which makes it more difficult to practice pesticide-free agriculture (Yadav et al., 2015). Though agrochemicals have a strong affinity for soil, the soil matrix functions as a pesticide storage compartment. Because soil and water bodies are closely related, pesticide contamination can affect groundwater and "surface" water supplies, including streams, estuaries, and lakes (Syafrudin et al., 2021). Low concentrations of pesticides accumulated in water can be multiplied by entering the food chain and aquatic life, eventually harming humans (Sharma et al., 2019). Both point sources and nonpoint sources allow pesticides to enter water bodies. Discharge of chemicals during improper preservation, loading, Waste disposal, and even improper pesticide application to aquatic areas are point sources originating from a permanent site (Alamgir et al., 2015). Exposure to pesticides and improper discharge of pesticides results in the Pesticides seeping directly into groundwater, an example of point source pollution (Lushchak et al., 2018). Despite the extensive utilization of pesticides in the agricultural sector, indoor gardening and other urban pest management practices are a significant origin of the water pollution caused by pesticides, and in comparison to other pesticides like herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides are more strongly detected in urban areas (Zubrod et al., 2019).
Herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides have been the most often used pesticides in metropolitan and agricultural settings based on their capacity to eradicate particular species (Alamgir & Chowdhury, 2015). Herbicides destroy weeds and are typically present in plant growth regulators. Garden insects, stored food facilities, and farmlands are controlled using insecticides. Whereas fungicides are sometimes sprayed before or after a fungus infects a plant, preventing the growth of fungi in seeds or plants (Wolfram et al., 2019). Organophosphorus pesticides are less frequent in aquifers because of their rapid environmental degradation, even though they are still quite toxic to humans. Carbamate insecticides are also being introduced to replace chlorinated hydrocarbons. The active components of carbamate insecticides may end up in surface waterways since they are uncertain to be bonded to soil particles(Sabin et al., 2009).
It is a common problem to find pesticides within particular sections of the environment, including surface water, groundwater, and the silt in streambeds (McKnight et al., 2015). According to the standard of the National Water-Quality Assessment NWQA, (2021), 25 pesticides were discovered, out of which more than 10% of them are in surface waterways, and 2% are in groundwater in a variety of land-use settings, including agricultural, metropolitan, and mixed land use, which demonstrates that pesticides are frequently found in surface waterways due to their direct and quick transportation over land via surface runoff. The sluggish pace of water infiltration into the aquifer through the soil may be the cause why pesticide contamination of groundwater is less likely. Groundwater contamination is more challenging to reverse once it has occurred due to pesticides' morphological flexibility, distribution, and sorption during the prolonged transit time (Sharma et al., 2019).
A report by Zaidon et al. (2018) revealed that pesticide exposure results in cancer, hormone disruption, reduced IQ, immunosuppression, and altered reproduction. The most frequent acute health consequences of pesticides include impaired vision, headaches, salivation, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, wheezing, coma, and even death (Elfikrie et al., 2020). Pesticide exposure can have both immediate and long-term negative consequences on human health. Neurological side effects, such as the onset of Parkinson's disease, attention deficit disorder, anomalies in memory, reproductive problems, changes in fetal development, cancer, and birth deformities, are examples of chronic health issues (Zaidon et al., 2018). The degree of pesticide toxicity determines these consequences because even mild pesticide poisoning can resemble the symptoms of bronchitis, gastroenteritis, and asthma, according to a study evaluated by Samsuddin et al. (2015). According to a different source (Dalvie et al., 2004), endosulfan caused the metalloproteinase protein stromelysins to be over-expressed, which in turn caused the degeneration of the proteins necessary for the advancement of atherosclerosis. Farmers who frequently used chlorinated pesticides had a significant risk of getting prostate cancer and allergy or non-allergic asthma (Hoppin et al., 2009).
Between the 1950s and 2015, the amount of plastic produced worldwide rose from 1.5 million tons to 322 million tons, while in 2022, plastic production reached 400.3 million metric tons, given that plastics are now both a profitable commodity and a necessary part of daily existence (Nurain et al., 2020). Microplastics are microscopic plastic particles smaller than 5 mm and can form from larger plastic particles in the environment over time. Other tiny man-made microplastic particles discovered in the water are classified as primary microplastics because they are generated and used in goods like cosmetics, industrial particles, or pellets used to make plastic polymers (Sarijan et al., 2018).
High levels of persistent pollutants accumulate in rivers and coastal areas due to anthropogenic pressures, which could negatively affect species and the environment (Zhang et al., 2019). Microplastics in economic fish species pose concerns regarding food security and human health (Barboza et al., 2018) Precise exposure measurement is also necessary for risk evaluation, which makes biota sampling necessary (Anbumani & Kakkar, 2018).
According to a report by Gasperi et al. (2018), air, water, and food samples contain microplastics, and most recently, there are assessments of the microplastics' implications on human health. Whereas it is possible to be exposed to microplastics by ingesting or inhalation, the effects on human health are still unknown, and limited evidence from animal research indicates that microplastics may collect and create particle toxicity by stimulating the immune system when ingested or breathed (Deng et al., 2017). Leaching of plastic-related compounds may result in chemical toxicity. Although there is a dearth of information on exposure levels, these effects are probably dose-dependent (Koelmans et al., 2019). Moreover, microbial infections could originate from biofilms that are developing on microplastics (SAPEA, 2019). Therefore, existing consumption levels, particularly via drinking water, must be assessed before considering possible chemical particles, and microbiological concerns related to microplastics. Only a few studies have been conducted so far that deal with this issue have shown that Microplastics can be found in both packaged and tap water (Kosuth et al., 2018). The issue of human being exposed to microplastics through drinking water became a priority for public health organizations worldwide due to some of this research garnering significant media and scientific attention. Generally speaking, obtaining clean water is a top political concern; one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6) is to provide clean, accessible water (WHO and UNICEF, 2017).
Using the right extraction and analytical techniques for separating and determining a blend of xenobiotics alternatives is crucial. Likewise, these techniques must be quick, precise, and affordable (Kumar & Chopra, 2020). The chemicals are frequently diverse in various sample types and are challenging to detect at low concentration rates, making it difficult to identify xenobiotics in environmental samples (de Oliveira et al., 2020). Among the extremely sensitive and analytical techniques used to examine xenobiotics are multifunctional chromatographic techniques, Gas Chromatography (GC), Ultra-high-Performance Liquid Chromatography (UPLC), and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) (Tuzimski& Sherma, 2019). In both human and veterinary medicine, chromatographic analysis of xenobiotics is employed to separate and identify compounds with similar chemical structures in the air, ground, surface water, sludge, soil matrices, food, and food items. Compounds like toluene, xylene, and acetaldehyde that are either highly volatile or somewhat volatile are necessary for GC techniques, while the detection of phenols, polychlorinated biphenyls, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water and soil, including fluoranthene, pyrene, chrysene, acenaphthene, and fluorene, HPLC is used (Oros et al., 2012). Functional groups related to the chemical characteristics of polymers are found using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Samples of water extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE; 1000 x intensity factor), thenGC-MS, either with or without derivatization, is next, which is used to determine the selected analytes (Maloschik et al., 2010). While neonicotinoid pesticides are determined using HPLC, glyphosate is tested using ELISA (M¨ortl et al., 2013). Dried samples are generated by directly depositing big, visible particles onto the filter surface or by filtering the sample solution through an appropriate mesh filter with suspensions ranging in size from microliters to litres. A single filter can enable a one-step analysis of large volumes of suspected contaminated solutions (Schymanski et al., 2018).
Many techniques effectively remove xenobiotics, including depletion, adsorption, biosynthesis, improved oxidation processes, engineered marshes, and membrane mechanisms (Roccaro et al., 2013). Techniques for degradation are categorized as photo-remediation and biological remediation (microbial remediation using bacteria, fungi, and algae). In photo-remediation, photon-adsorbing xenobiotic substances, including pesticides, heavy metals, and dyes, are broken down using radiation from the sun that is ultraviolet (UV) and infrared radiation. Introducing photodegradable polymers has made it possible to utilize photo-remediation to break down plastic. Photocatalytic degradation utilizing ZnO and UV-A is one advancement used in Congo red dye degradation (Kumar & Chopra, 2020). Utilizing microorganisms like Aspergillus niger and Penicillium funiculosum to decompose synthetic and natural polymers, biodegradation is assessed by photodegraded films (Varsha et al., 2011).
The examined literature indicates that different effective methods/techniques can be used in detecting and mitigating/eliminating the xenobiotic compounds in drinking water. More so, consumption of such compounds may result in carcinogenic or non-carcinogenic effects that may even result in death. There is a significant variation in the reports of microplastic concentrations in various types of water; however, this discrepancy can be explained by the fact that several studies have focused on different size classes. Research has indicated that drinking and freshwater commonly contain xenobiotics despite limitations on quality. It is, therefore, necessary to enhance the capacity to examine and distinguish minuscule xenobiotic compounds in diverse water samples.
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