UMYU Journal of Microbiology Research

E-ISSN: 2814 – 1822; P-ISSN: 2616 – 0668

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Water Quality Assessment and Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases within Chikun Local Government Area, Kaduna State-Nigeria

Bello Ahmad^1* and Kurmi Ann Pyeng²

¹*Biology Unit, School of Preliminary Studies, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria.

²Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, College of Science and Technology, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria

Correspondence: belloahmadbalarabe@gmail.com; +2349034300297

Abstract

The health and well-being of individuals in a nation are intrinsically tied to the quality of water available for consumption. Access to high-quality water plays a vital role in supporting proper nutrition, ensuring food security, and preventing waterborne diseases. Therefore, this study was carried out to assess water quality and prevalence of waterborne diseases within Chikun Local Government Area, Kaduna State. A cross-sectional study was conducted between January and June 2024. Data were collected through the administration of questionnaires (400 respondents) and laboratory water analysis. Water samples were analyzed from various sources involving boreholes, rivers and wells through composite sampling and physicochemical and microbiological analyses. Results showed samples from Unguwan Maigero and Tricania possessed varying physicochemical properties, while water from Goningora and Nasarawa revealed high turbidity and heavy metal contamination. Chloride levels were below 500 ppm, and sulphate concentrations ranged from 10.76 to 378.3 ppm. Sodium levels ranged from 19.5 to 110 mg/l, and potassium levels exceeded the permissible limit in some samples. Total coliform counts exceeded national limits (zero coliform per 100ml of water), indicating significant microbial contamination. Parasitological analysis indicated helminths and protozoan contamination in non-borehole sources. Findings showed 41% prevalence of waterborne diseases with diarrhea and typhoid. The study indicates that community awareness, appropriate water treatment, surveillance, and monitoring are essentials for assuring the availability and utilisation of safe and high-quality drinking water in Chikun LGA, Kaduna State.

Keywords: Assessment, Prevalence, Waterborne Diseases, Water Quality

INTRODUCTION

According to Omolade and Zainab (2017), water is a crucial natural resource that plays a vital role in maintaining human existence and sustenance. Water has perpetually existed as an element of the natural world, maintaining its original state when undisturbed in its native habitat; it can become contaminated (Imam et al., 2018). Water from boreholes or taps, wells, dams, rivers, streams, lakes, city water, and precipitation are all potential sources of drinking water (WHO, 2017). In most urban and rural areas of developing countries, there are insufficient facilities for disposing of human waste (UNICEF, 2015). As a result, people defecate haphazardly in nearby regions, including on the ground and rocks, by the edges of streams, at their homes, ponds, and wells, and occasionally even directly into the streams (Azuonwu et al., 2017).

Industrialization has become recognized as a critical component of a country's development through the building of factories (UNIDO, 2013). However, a number of toxins are present in these operations' byproducts, which are released into the environment untreated and contaminate soil, groundwater, and surface waterways (Umeh et al., 2020). Endoparasitic helminth infections are especially vulnerable to either the beneficial or harmful effects of pollution on parasites (Ogeneogaga and Solomon, 2017). Water pollution with pathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths causes water shortages and restricted access to clean water sources (Sadiya et al., 2018; Onuorah et al., 2017). constitute a serious threat to people's health. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA, 2020) claims that inadequate sanitation systems, wastewater reuse, improper management of water supplies, and ignorance and unsanitary conduct among human populations were the main causes of these contaminations. People all around the world are affected by the significant issue of contaminated water, which can result in excruciating agony, crippling illnesses, and even fatalities (WHO & UNICEF, 2019; Pruss-Ustun et al., 2019). People can contract a number of diseases when they drink or come into contact with water that has been contaminated by particular parasites (CDC, 2018).

In the majority of Nigeria's largest cities, the amount and quality of pipe-borne water are both substandard. As a result, cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne diseases are on the rise (UNICEF, 2019; Okoh et al., 2014). Approximately 80% of typhoid patients at University College Hospital Ibadan are between the ages of 10 and 30, according to data supplied by Karunanidhi et al. (2022). In addition to once-rare kidney and cardiovascular conditions like hypertension, typhoid fever is still a significant socioeconomic problem in developing countries. These ailments are all related to tainted water use (Pruss-Ustun et al., 2019). Because water is essential for illness prevention, poor water quality and sanitation have a considerable negative influence on children's health and development (Jaiswal et al., 2022).

UNICEF and WHO reported that in 2017, only 20% of Nigerians used safe, clean water sources on-premises, while 7% relied on open water sources. Only 27% used safe sanitation, and 20% practiced open defecation (OD). Only 42% used basic hygiene facilities on premises (UNICEF & WHO, 2017). In order to identify potential hazards and create countermeasures, this study will examine the physicochemical and microbiological parameters of drinking water sources and the prevalence of waterborne diseases in Chikun LGA of Kaduna State.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Description of Study Area

Chikun Local Government area of Kaduna State, Nigeria, Figure 1, is situated within the geographical coordinates of latitudes 70°27'15" and 100°28'06" and longitudes 70°27'44" and 100°28'35". Based on the estimates provided by the National Planning Commission (NPC, 2006), the geographical expanse of this region is approximately 4,645 square kilometers, accommodating a populace of 368,250 individuals.

Figure 1: Display of geographical representation of Chikun Local Government Area with various sampling points

Sample and sampling technique of the Respondents: The respondents were selected through a random sampling technique. The sample size was calculated using the formula (Nnodim et al. 2021): \(n = \ \frac{z^{2}pq}{d^{2}}\)

Where n= sample size, z = critical value at 95% confidence level, usually set at 1.96, p= Prevalence (6.5% prevalence was used) (Adabara et al., 2012), q = 1-p and d = Precision, usually 5%. The sample size was calculated to be 187.9875. For convenience, the sample size of 400 respondents in all the study sites was selected.

Water Sampling

A composite sampling technique was adopted for this study. Seventeen sampling communities were selected based on accessibility and community willingness to participate (Buruku, Babansaura, Kudandan, Kakau, Keke, Narayi, Nasarawa, Romi, Sabo, Tricania, Kadaure, Dan hono, U/maigero, Kujama, Rido, Baggi villa and Goningora). Water samples were collected from the various sources of drinking viz borehole, River, and well into 750mLs wide mouth screw-capped cleaned plastic polyethylene bottles. Water samples were collected in triplicates and placed in an icebox jar to ensure water quality, after which they were thoroughly washed and rinsed.

Physicochemical Analysis

The physical variables of pH, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids were measured in situ following conventional procedures (Onuorah et al., 2017). Determination of Total Hardness, Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen Levels, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Sulphate, Heavy Metal Content, and Chloride was conducted at the Chemistry Laboratory (Multi-user lab) located at A.B.U. Zaria, as adopted from Yusuf et al. (2017);

Total Hardness = Volume of Titrant x 100

Volume of Sample (cm³)

The measurement of the turbidity value for the water sample was acquired from the lateral aspect of the tube (Pistocchi et al. 2019). For the determination of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), the level of oxygen depletion was compared to the dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration before the incubation process. According to the study conducted by Umeh et al. (2020), sulphate was analyzed spectrophotometrically using a Hanna 83200 Multi-parameter Bench Top Photometer. The elemental samples were introduced into a nebulizer burner assembly, and the corresponding absorbance values were recorded using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) at the specific wavelength corresponding to each element being analyzed. The quantity of chloride was determined using the following method (APHA, 2018).

Chloride (mg/L) = (A-B) x N x 35460

V

Silver Nitrate Solution Overview
• A: mL for sample titration.
• B: mL for blank titration.
• N: Normality of Silver Nitrate solution.
• V: Sample volume in mL (APHA, 2018).

Microbiological analysis

Water samples were examined macroscopically and microscopically. The culture media (Mac Conkey broth, Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) medium) used were autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes. Pipettes, Petri dishes, and other glass utensils were sterilized using a hot air oven at 160°C for one hour. The presumptive Test was carried out by inoculating the water samples into lactose broth tubes, followed by incubation. The production of gas in the Durham tubes indicated the potential presence of Gram-negative coliform bacteria. A confirmatory Test was performed by transferring samples from positive presumptive tests to selective media Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) agar, which is specific for the identification of Escherichia coli and other coliforms. Colonies displaying a metallic sheen on EMB agar suggested fecal contamination. The completed Test was executed by inoculating positive colonies from the confirmatory test into lactose broth again, and further incubating them. The formation of gas, along with a color change in the broth, confirmed the presence of coliform bacteria, including E. coli (Rompre et al., 2002). The parasitological analysis was carried out following the method described by Iyagi et al. (2018). The procedure involved initial filtration of the water samples to concentrate any potential parasites. Following filtration, the samples were centrifuged to further isolate parasitic elements. The resulting deposit was carefully placed onto a glass slide, covered with a cover slip, and examined under a microscope. The initial examination used the 10x objective lens to focus on the general structure, while the 40x objective lens was employed for the detailed identification of specific parasitic organisms.

Data Collection

A well-structured questionnaire was designed and administered to residents of the communities from where water samples were collected.

Statistical analysis

The data was analyzed using SPSS version 24.0 software, with statistical significance determined by p values less than 0.05, and charts were created using Microsoft Excel.

RESULTS

Table 1 displays the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants. Approximately 43.75% of the participants belong to the age range of 34-45, while just 3.75% fall into the age range of 15-24. The female gender constituted the majority of the subjects, accounting for 73.25%. Out of these subjects, 75.25% were married, and a greater proportion of them had completed Primary/Secondary school. The respondents were engaged in various vocations, with 36.50% being students. Furthermore, 80% of the individuals were indigenous, while the remaining 20% were non-indigenous.

Table 1: Socio-Demographic Profile of Respondents

WHO and NIS permissible values were compared to the physiochemical parameters of the water sampled. The temperature of the water samples was 30.7°C, slightly exceeding the NIS standard of 30°C but within the WHO range of 25-30°C. The pH value of 7.20 was within the acceptable range of 6.5-8.5 for both standards. However, the conductivity measured at 120.87 µS/cm, while below the WHO limit of 250 µS/cm, lacks a specific NIS standard for comparison. Notably, the concentrations of dissolved solids and certain ions such as calcium (106.4 mg/L), chloride (12.77 ppm), and magnesium (45.82 mg/L) exceeded both WHO and NIS recommended limits, highlighting potential health risks (Table 2).

Table 2: Sample Test Compares with World Health Organisation (WHO) and Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) Standard

The results of the biological analyses of the coliform count using the Most Probable Number (Table 3). Results show varying levels of contamination across these locations. For instance, at a 10 ml sample volume, coliform counts ranged from 0 to 5, with the Most Probable Number (MPN) per 100 ml varying from less than 2 to 110. Notably, the MPN/100 ml for areas like Babansaura and Tricania exceeded the NIS limit of 10, indicating significant contamination levels in those water sources.

Table 4 below displays the total coliform risk for River, well, and borehole water samples. It showed that 75% are at high risk and 25% are at very high risk in the analysis of River water, as well as 66.67% at high risk and 33.3% at very high risk in the analysis of well water, and finally, 57.14% are at no risk while 42.86 are at low risk in the analysis of borehole water.

Table 3: Coliform Count for Samples of Water Analysed using Most Probable Number

Table 4. Total Coliform Risk for Rivers, Well, and Bore Hole

Figure 2: Physicochemical parameters of the water samples

The analysis of water samples from various communities in Chikun LGA revealed varying prevalence of parasitic contamination. Taenia sp was detected in 22.73% of the communities, including Buruku, Keke, and Sabo. Cryptosporidium was found in 22.73% of the communities, with notable occurrences in Buruku, Babansaura, Kakau, and Kujama. Entamoeba histolytica was detected in 18.18% of the communities, with a significant presence in Nasarawa, Kakau, and Kujama. G. lamblia had a prevalence of 9.09%, particularly evident in Babansaura and Keke (Figure 3).

Figure 4 displays the incidence rate of waterborne illnesses. Within the past three years, 41% of the participants reported having developed a waterborne illness. The prevalence of diarrhea and typhoid among waterborne diseases was 17.25% and 17.50% respectively. These diseases were primarily encountered in Chikun LGA, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 3: Prevalence of parasite species identified in the water samples

Figure 4: Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases Chikun LGA

Figure 5: Prevalence of different types of waterborne diseases

DISCUSSION

The research recorded physicochemical analysis, parasitological analysis, and prevalence of waterborne diseases in Chikun Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria. The recorded water temperatures sampled in all the communities were between 29-33⁰C, which is slightly above the WHO and NIS standards (25-30⁰C) (WHO, 2017; SON, 2015), potentially affecting aquatic ecosystems and public health. The pH values ranged from 6.1 to 8.72, with the highest at Unguwan Maigero and the lowest at Tricania, possibly due to the carbonate or bicarbonate buffer in the soil (Sataa et al., 2017). This pH variation is significant as it can influence the solubility and toxicity of chemicals and heavy metals, with implications for both aquatic life and human health. Electrical conductivity values (119.55-159.40 dsm) complied with WHO standards (should not exceed 250 dsm), indicating acceptable levels of dissolved salts (Bekele et al., 2018) and minimizing the risk of corrosion in the water distribution system (WHO, 2017). Turbidity, used to measure water clarity, showed varying levels across locations, with high turbidity indicating potential contamination from human activities such as mining and agriculture (Amsalu Mekonnen Wolde, 2022). Chloride concentrations recorded in the sampled water from all communities were between 0.80-23.54 PPM. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the guideline value for chloride in drinking water is <250 PPM. This value is based primarily on test considerations, as higher concentration can impact a salty taste to water, which may make it palatable (WHO, 2017).

Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations (0.00-234 ppm) were within permissible limits, essential for the health of aquatic organisms, and indicative of the water's overall quality (Yang et al., 2022). Sulphate levels (10.76-378.3 ppm) were within acceptable limits, supporting findings by Singh (2020) and Zeyneb (2021). However, biological oxygen demand (BOD) values (0.00-47.2 ntu) indicated microbial contamination in several samples, consistent with previous studies (Abiola et al., 2019; Fawale, 2020; Adeleye et al., 2022).

Sodium (19.5-110 mg/l) and potassium levels mostly fell within acceptable ranges, though a few samples exceeded the limits, potentially due to agricultural runoff and sewage infiltration (Hassan et al., 2017). Elevated manganese levels in most samples were attributed to effluents and geological factors (Singh, 2020). Mercury concentrations exceeded acceptable limits in several samples, linked to improper waste disposal and industrial activities, posing significant health risks (Umeh et al., 2020). Cadmium levels were within acceptable limits in only five samples, likely due to industrial and household waste contamination (Azuonwu et al., 2017; Imam et al., 2018). Arsenic concentrations in some samples exceeded permissible limits, potentially from industrial activities, posing severe health risks (Yusuf et al., 2017). Copper levels, though generally within acceptable limits, could pose health risks at higher concentrations (Brack et al., 2017).

The results showing the presence of coliforms in all river samples align with the broader understanding that total coliform counts are key indicators of water quality. As observed in other studies, such as those conducted on the Nakdong River in South Korea, the presence of coliforms often correlates with high levels of organic pollutants that serve as nutrients for these bacteria (Seo et al., 2019). Although coliforms are generally not harmful themselves, their presence suggests the potential for other dangerous microorganisms, emphasizing the need for regular monitoring and effective water quality management to ensure public health and safety (Ashbolt et al., 2001; Hrudey & Hrudey, 2004). The detection of coliforms in all river samples underlines the importance of preventive measures to protect water sources from contamination.

The parasitological evaluation of the water samples from various locations indicated varying parasite burdens. The majority of the parasite species found in the study were helminths, which were represented by Taenia sp. and Trichuris trichuria. The only protozoan parasites identified were Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia. It was discovered that borehole water samples were parasite-free. This is largely due to the way they are dressed. Boreholes run a closed water system, in contrast to other sources (such as rivers and wells), which are susceptible to external pollution. This finding confirms that parasite infestation of water sources is inherently contaminative. It has been previously established that human parasites do not directly use water sources for the development of their life cycles. Instead, because their vectors live near water, they are linked to both water and specific aquatic foods (Sufyan et al., 2022).

The study showed an overall 41% prevalence of waterborne diseases with diarrhoea, and typhoid was mostly experienced among the subjects in Chikun LGA. This is in line with the study of Nwabor et al. (2016), that also shows diarrhoea and typhoid as common waterborne diseases in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly Nigeria. Ahmed and Kafayos (2020) showed the outbreak of cholera and typhoid in Bade, Nguru, and Machina Local Government Areas of Yobe State-Nigeria and linked it to high consumption of tainted or non-potable water by the people. Another study conducted by Enabulele et al. (2016) reported that 45.76% of 271 test persons in Benin, Edo State, Nigeria are typhoid positive.

CONCLUSION

Findings revealed physicochemical contamination, such as elevated pH levels ranging from 6.1 to 8.72 and electrical conductivity between 119.55 to 159.40 dS/m. Additionally, high coliform counts and parasites were detected in non-borehole sources, contributing to a 41% prevalence of waterborne diseases such as diarrhea and typhoid, as it mostly occurred. Addressing these challenges requires improved water treatment, infrastructure development, public education, and economic support for safe drinking water access.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to gratefully acknowledge the Director and Coordinator School of Preliminary Studies, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

COMPETING INTERESTS

The authors have declared no competing interests exist.

REFERENCES

Abiola, O., Enikanselu, P.A and Oladapo, M. I. (2019). Groundwater Potential and Aquifer Protective capacity of overburden unit in Ado- Ekiti Southwestern Nigeria. International Journal of Physical science 4(3): pg.120-132.

Adabara, N. U., Ezugwu, B. U., Momojimoh, A., Madzu, A., Hashiimu, Z., & Damisa, D. (2012). Pattern of Salmonella typhi among patients attending a military hospital in Minna, Nigeria. Advances in Preventive Medicine, 2012, Article 875419. [Crossref]

Adeleye, A.O.; Yerima, M.B.; Nkereuwem, M.E.; Onokebhagbe, V.O and Daya, M.G. (2022). Effect of Bio-enhanced Streptococcus pyogenes and Enterococcus faecalis Co-culture on Decontamination of Heavy Metals Content in Used Lubricating Oil Contaminated Soil. Journal of Soil Plant Environ. 1, 1–15. [Crossref]

Ahmed, A.A and Kafayos, Y. (2020): Prevalence of Waterborne Diseases in Bade, Nguru and Machina Local Government Areas of Yobe State-Nigeria International Journal of Tropical Disease & Health, 41(11): 35-46. [Crossref]

Amsalu Mekonnen Wolde (2022). Public Health Microbiological Quality and Safety Assessment of Addis Ababa City Drinking Water Sources, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Research Square. 1(2): 1-15

APHA (2017). Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American Public Health Association. American Water Works Association & Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC. 23

Ashbolt, N. J., Grabow, W. O. K., & Snozzi, M. (2001). Indicators of microbial water quality. In L. Fewtrell & J. Bartram (Eds.), Water quality: Guidelines, standards, and health: Assessment of risk and risk management for water-related infectious disease (pp. 289-316). London: World Health Organization & IWA Publishing.

Azuonwu, O., Azuonwu, T.C. and Nwizug, W.L. (2017). Evaluation of bacteriological quality of surface, well, borehole and river waters in Khana L. G. A. of Rivers State, Niger Delta. Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Research, 5 (3): 183.

Bekele, M., Dananto, M. and Tadele, D. (2018). Assessment of Physico-Chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Drinking Water at the Source, Storage, Point-of-Use, Dry and Wet Season in Damot Sore Woreda, Southern Regional State, Ethiopia.

Brack, W., Dulio, V., Ågerstrand, M., Allan, I., Altenburger, R., Brinkmann, M., et al. (2017). Towards the review of the European Union Water Framework Directive: Recommendations for more efficient assessment and management of chemical contamination in European surface water resources. Science of the Total Environment 576, 720–737. [Crossref]

Buba M. and Maina M. (2020). Assessment of physicochemical parameters and some selected heavy metals; cadmium, chromium, iron and lead in borehole water and hand dug well water: a case study of Jiwa village in the outskirt of Abuja, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Science and Technology. 11(02): Pp. 10751-10756.

Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Water Sources. Retrieved 2024.

Eke S.S, Josiah J.G, S. Paul, Umeasiegbu C.U, Nnaji C.L, Michael N.E and Owoh – Etete U. (2022). Parasitological and Bacteriological Evaluation of Selected Vended Sachet Water in Sabo Metropolis, Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Journal of Basic and Applied Medical Sciences ISSN: 2277-2103

Enabulele O and Awunor SN (2016). Typhoid fever in a tertiary hospital in Nigeria: Another look at the widal agglutination test as a preferred option for diagnosis. Nigerian Medical Journal.57(3):145- 149. [Crossref]

Fawale, O., and Oladipo, O.I. (2020). Geolectrical Investigation for Groundwater Exploration within the Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti Continuing Education Centre, Southwestern, Nigeria. Archives of Physics Research. 11(1): 01-7.

Hassan, T., Parveen, S., Bhat, B.N. and Ahmad, U., (2017). Seasonal variations in water quality parameters of River Yamuna, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(5), pp.694-712. [Crossref]

Hrudey, S. E., & Hrudey, E. J. (2004). Safe drinking water: Lessons from recent outbreaks in affluent nations. London, UK: IWA Publishing.

Imam, M.M., Kankara, I.L. and Abba, Y. (2018). Determination of some heavy met-als in borehole and well water from selected industrial areas of Kaduna metropolis. In Discovery Science (Vol. 14, pp. 93-99).

Iyagi, F.O. Abuh, A., Yaro, C.A and Mohammed, D. (2018). Evaluation of Parasitic Contamination of Drinking Water Sources in the Rural Areas of Dekina Local Government Area, Kogi State, Nigeria. American Journal of Public Health Research, 6(1):1-3.

Jaiswal, M.; Gupta, S.K.; Chabukdhara, M.; Nasr, M.; Nema, A.K.; Hussain, J.; Malik, T. (2022). Heavy metal contamination in the complete stretch of Yamuna river: A fuzzy logic approach for comprehensive health risk assessment. PLoS ONE 17, e0272562. [Crossref]

Karunanidhi, D.; Aravinthasamy, P.; Subramani, T.; Chandrajith, R.; Raju, N.J. (2022). Antunes, I.M.H.R. Provincial and seasonal influences on heavy metals in the Noyyal River of South India and their human health hazards. Environ. Res. 204, 111998. [Crossref]

National Population Commission (NPC). (2006). Population and housing census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria: National and state population and housing priority tables. Abuja: National Population Commission.

Nnodim, J., Onyeze, V., Nwaokoro, J. C., & Obeagu, E. I. (2021). Sample size determination as an important statistical concept in Medical research. Madonna University Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences ISSN: 2814-3035, 1(2), 42-49. Retrieved from madonnauniversity.edu.ng

Nwabor OF, Nnamonu EI, Martins PE, Ani OC (2016). Water and waterborne diseases: A review. International Journal of Tropical Disease and Health.;12(4): 1-14. [Crossref]

Ogeneogaga, O. I., & Solomon, R. J. (2017). Physico-chemical and bacteriological investigation of selected fish ponds in Kuje Area Council, Nigeria*. Researcher, 9(4), 31-45. [Crossref]

Okoh, B. A. N., & Alex-Hart, B. A. (2014). Home management of diarrhoea by caregivers presenting at the diarrhoea training unit of a tertiary hospital in Southern Nigeria. British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research, 4(35), 5524-5540. [Crossref]

Omolade, O.O. and Zanaib, G.O. (2017). Parasitological Evaluation of Sachet Drinking Water in Areas of Lagos State, Nigeria. Electronic Journal of Biology, 13:2

Onuorah, S., Elesia, Rosemary, Okoye, P. and Odibo, F. (2017). An evaluation of the physicochemical characteristics of the hand-dug shallow water wells in Awka Metropolis, Anambra State, Nigeria. American Journal of Life Science Researches, 5(3): 89-101. [Crossref]

Onwugbuta Nneka., Ekweozor, I.K.E., Ugbomeh, A.P., Bobmanuel, K.N.O & Anaero-Nweke, G.N (2022). Monitoring and Assessment of Physico-chemical Parameters in the Surface Water of some selected River in the Niger Delta. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences. 9: 1-8

Pistocchi, A., Dorati, C., Grizzetti, B., Udias, A., Vigiak, O. and Zanni, M. (2019). Water quality in Europe: effects of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive. A retrospective and scenario analysis of Dir. 91/271/EEC Rep., EUR 30003. Luxembourg: EN Publications Office of the European Union. [Crossref]

Prüss-Ustün, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford Jr, J. M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., & Cairncross, S. (2014). Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 19(8), 894-905. [Crossref]

Prüss-Ustün, A., Wolf, J., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Cumming, O., Freeman, M. C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P. R., Medlicott, K., & Johnston, R. (2019). Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene for selected adverse health outcomes: An updated analysis with a focus on low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(5), 765–777. [Crossref]

Rompré, A., Servais, P., Baudart, J., de-Roubin, M. R., & Laurent, P. (2002). Detection and enumeration of coliforms in drinking water: Current methods and emerging approaches. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 49(1), 31-54. [Crossref]

Sadiya, A., Chukwuma, C.O., Olatunbosun, O.A. and Onyinye, F.N. (2018). Compar-ative Study of the Physicochemical and Bacteriological Qualities of Some Drinking Water Sources in Abuja, Nigeria, Global Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 24: 91-98. [Crossref]

Sataa, A.F., Al- Bayati, J.K., AL- Rifaie and Noor S.I. (2017). Applied of CCME Water Quality Index for Protection of Aquatic Life for Al-Hussainiya River within Karbala City, Iraq, International Journal of Current Engineering and Technology, 7(1)

Seo, M., Lee, H., & Kim, Y. (2019). Water quality factors at weir stations in the Nakdong River, South Korea. Water, 11(6), Article 1171. [Crossref]

Singh, K. (2020). Study of physicochemical parameters in reference to zooplankton diversity in river water near to industrial area of Pali, Rajasthan. Plant Archives, 20(1): 649–652.

Standard Organization of Nigeria (2015). Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ) NIS: 554:2015. Abuja, Nigeria: Standards Organization of Nigeria

Sufyan C. S, Mohammed S. M, Shehu T. A and Hashimu A. (2022). Determination of Some Physicochemical Parameters and Selected Heavy Metals in Borehole Water Samples from Wawa Town, In Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 12: 4-9. [Crossref]

Sufyan C. S, Mohammed S. M, Shehu T. A and Hashimu A. (2022). Determination of Some Physicochemical Parameters and Selected Heavy Metals in Borehole Water Samples from Wawa Town, In Borgu Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 12: 4-9. [Crossref]

Umeh, O.R., Chukwura, E.I. and Ibo, E.M. (2020). Physicochemical, bacteriological and parasitological examination of selected fish pond water samples in Awka and its environment, Anambra State, Nigeria. Journal of Advances in Microbiol-ogy, 20 (3): 27-48, [Crossref]

UNICEF. (2015). Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment. World Health Organization. Retrieved from [data.unicef.org]

UNICEF. (2019). Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in Nigeria. Retrieved from [unicef.org]

UNIDO. (2013). Industrial development report 2013: Sustaining employment growth: The role of manufacturing and structural change*. United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Retrieved from [www.unido.org]

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2020). Sources and solutions: Wastewater. Retrieved from [www.epa.gov]

Water Regulations; United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency: Washington, DC, USA. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinkingwater/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations

WHO, & UNICEF. (2017). Joint monitoring program for water supply, sanitation, and hygiene (JMP). Retrieved from [unwater.org]

World Health Organization (2017). Guideline for drinking water quality: Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. Geneva: WHO Press

World Health Organization (WHO), & UNICEF. (2019). 1 in 3 people globally do not have access to safe drinking water – UNICEF, WHO. Retrieved from [www.who.int]

Yang, H., Kong, J., Hu, H., Du, Y., Gao, M., & Chen, F. (2022). A review of remote sensing for water quality retrieval: Progress and challenges. Remote Sensing, 14(8), Article 1770. [Crossref]

Yusuf, A., Olasehinde, A., Mboringong, M.N., Tabale, R.P. and Daniel, E.P. (2017). Evaluation of heavy metal concentration in groundwater around Kashere and Environs, Upper Benue Trough, North-Eastern, Nigeria. Global Journal of Geological Sciences, 16: 25-36. [Crossref]

Zeyneb Kilic (2021). Water Pollution: Causes, Negative Effects and Prevention Methods. Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology. 2021; 3(1): 129-132. [Crossref]